5 important points to avoid in horse feeding are being presented, which have triggered a lot of mixed reactions.
Are these statements regarding haylage too generalised?
Anyone who knows us, knows that we don’t believe in generalised answers. Especially from a therapeutic point of view, each horse must be considered and fed as an individual. We therefore answer most messages and questions with the following “…you can’t say that in general terms because we don’t know the horse and don’t have enough information” or “…you should take a detailed and holistic anamnesis”.
But: there are feedstuffs that can be generalised
and we do this deliberately. This is the case when a feed is not suitable for ANY horse, there are no exceptions. If we were to make a statement like “…for most horses…” instead of generalising, it would simply not be honest, but a lie. No exceptions to the points we have mentioned.
And yes, we know that there will probably be comments saying: “But I’ve been doing it this way for years and my horse looks good.” We understand there are plenty of horses that are fed this way and many of them look well.
But just because something works without problems does not mean that it is healthy or even beneficial to health. It is rather astonishing how long horses can compensate for incorrect and inappropriate feeding, because the survival instinct is ultimately stronger.
Let’s talk about this in a little more detail. In the following posts, we will go into the points mentioned and explain why these statements can be made across the board for all horses. In the next few articles, we will look at the topic of oil usage and the question of whether it is better to use organic or inorganic minerals to cover basic mineral requirements.
Haylage, brewer’s yeast and effective microorganisms in horse feeding
“Haylage, brewer’s yeast and Effective Microorganisms” are the topics of the next paragraph followed by explanation why they are not suitable to feeding your horses.
We will discuss these points together as they all relate to the problem faced by lactic acid bacteria. These are found in small quantities in the horse’s gastrointestinal tract, they find their way into the colon via the stomach. In a healthy well-functioning system, their numbers are balanced by Veillonellaceae bacteria, which immediately convert the lactic acid back into forms that can be utilised by the horse.
If additional lactic acid bacteria are reaching the large intestines, the balance is tipped, and acidosis occurs (hindgut acidosis). Scientists now consider this to be one of the main causes of metabolic disorders and diseases (for more information on this, see the nice review article by Rafat A.M. Al Jassim: The Bacterial Community of the Equine Gastrointestinal Tract and Its Relation to Fermentative Acidosis, Laminitis, Colic and Stomach Ulcers. Veterinary Clinics: Equine Practice: 25:2p199-215 from 2009).
© Adobe Stock / Westwind
Muhonen et al showed 2009 (Effects on the equine colon ecosystem of grass silage and haylage diets after an abrupt change from hay1 | Journal of Animal Science | Oxford Academic (oup.com)) that the amount of lactic acid bacteria increases rapidly when feeding haylage or silage, so that dysbiosis with an increase in lactobacilli and a drop in pH could be detected in horses within three weeks of starting to feed haylage or silage. The dramatic effects that an increase in lactic acid bacteria, especially Lactobacillus and Streptococcus, has on the health of the horse were already shown in 2008 by Milonovich et al (https://www.nature.com/articles/ismej200867), who were able to prove the connection between a drop in the pH value in the large intestine and the development of laminitis.
There were two research projects running alongside each other, over the years: one project was about the proof of the harmfulness of lactic acid bacteria in the large intestine, which were always triggered by the feeding of starch or comparable molecules and, the other project was about, the investigations into the microbiome when feeding haylage.
The consequences of feeding haylage
It is only now that the research projects have been brought together to show that it is not only starch that leads to a pathological increase in lactate formers in the large intestine, but also haylage and that the resulting dysbiosis is associated with a significant decrease in cellulolytic microorganisms and an increased risk of hindgut acidosis, laminitis, and leaky gut syndrome.
Feeding lactic acid bacteria in the form of haylage or “Effective Microorganisms” (EM-A, Bokashi, which consist largely of lactic acid bacteria https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J144v03n01_21) or promoting the colonisation of lactic acid bacteria, for example by feeding brewer’s yeast (J. C. Vázquez Chagoyán, ISBN: 978-1-62417-002-7, 2013) is therefore detrimental to intestinal homeostasis and, in addition to inadequate roughage utilisation, also leads to long-term health problems resulting from dysbiosis of the large intestine. The importance to maintain intestinal homeostasis for the horse’s health, is also demonstrated in these two articles: doi: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0737080620300344?via%3Dihub and doi: https://core.ac.uk/reader/323989690
A lot of information on the controversial topic of feeding haylage has been collated on our website. Feel free to take a look. Here, is the link to the haylage factsheet: https://wissen.sanoanimal.de/en/2023/03/10/factsheet-roughage-haylage-silage-fermented-hay/.
Sources and studies on this topic
1. www.silageadvice.com; Fact Sheet Series on Haylage for Horses; 27.3.2015
2. Peiretti & Bergero, Grass silages as feedstuff for horses; Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.2 (3&4) : 182-185. 2004
3. Müller, Feeding silage and haylage to horses; XVI International Silage Conference; 2012
4. Müller, Wrapped Forages for Horses; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Department of Animal Nutrition and Management Uppsala; 2007
5. Jensen et al.; A comparative study of the apparent total tract digestibility of carbohydrates in Icelandic and Danish warmblood horses fed two different haylages and a concentrate consisting of sugar beet pulp and black oats; Arch Anim Nutr. 2010 Oct;64(5):343-56. 2010
6. Moore-Colyer et al., Mathematical modelling of digesta passage rate, mean retention time and in vivo apparent digestibility of two different lengths of hay and big-bale grass silage in ponies; Br J Nutr. 2003 Jul;90(1):109-18. 2003
7. Müller et al.; Effect of forage conservation method on microbial flora and fermentation pattern in forage and in equine colon and faeces; Livestock Science Volume 119, Issues 1–3, December 2008, Pages 116–128; 2008
8. Muhonen et al.; Effects on the equine colon ecosystem of grass silage and haylage diets after an abrupt change from hay; J ANIM SCI 2009, 87:2291-2298.; 2009
9. Hills et al.; Feeding behaviour of horse offered ensiled lucerne; Proceedings of the 13 th International Silage Conference, Auchincruive, Scotland, U.K., pp. 328-329.; 2002
10. Muhonen; Metabolism and hindgut ecosystem in forage fed sedentary and athletic horses.; Diss. Acta Universitatis agriculturae Sueciae, Uppsala1652-6880; 2008
11. Gere et al.; Post mortem survey of peripheral dental caries in 510 Swedish horses; Equine vet. J. (2010) 42 (4) 310-315; 2010
12. Hanche-Olsen et al.; Polyneuropathy Associated with Forage Sources in Norwegian Horses; J Vet Intern Med 2008;22:178–184; 2008
13. O’Brien et al.; Fungal contamination of big-bale grass silage on Irish farms: predominant mould and yeast species and features of bales and silage; Grass and Forage Science Volume 63, Issue 1, pages 121–137; 2008
A further selection of publications relating to the microbiome in the horse gut
If you would like to find out more about the current state of science in relation to the microbiome of the horse’s intestine, you will find a selection of publications here:
Adam K. M. G. 1951. The quantity and distribution of the ciliate protozoa in the large intestine of the horse. Parasitology, 41:301–311. doi:10.1017/S0031182000084158
Adam K. M. G. 1953. In vivo observations on the ciliate protozoa inhabiting the large intestine of the horse. Microbiology, 9:376–384.
Al Jassim R. A. et al., 2005. The genetic diversity of lactic acid producing bacteria in the equine gastrointestinal tract. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 248:75–81. doi: 10.1016/j.femsle.2005.05.023
Alexander F., 1963. Production and fermentation of lactate by bacteria in the alimentary canal of the horse and pig. J. Comp. Pathol. 73:1–8. doi: 10.1016/S0368-1742(63)80001-6
Alexander F. et al., 1970. Bacteriophage-like particles in the large intestine of the horse. Res. Vet. Sci. 11:592–593.
Alexander F. et al., 1952. Fermentative activities of some members of the normal coccal flora of the horses large intestine. J. Comp. Pathol. Ther.62:252–259. doi: 10.1016/S0368-1742(52)80026-8
Argenzio R. A., 1975. Functions of the equine large intestine and their interrelationship in disease. Cornell Vet.65:301–331.
Baruc C. J. et al. 1983. The characterization and nitrogen metabolism of equine caecal bacteria. In: 8th Proc. 8th Equine Nutr. Physiol. Symp., Lexington, KY. p. 151–156.
Batista A. et al. 1961. Flora micoteca intestinal de equinos e asininos no recife. (In Portuguese.) Publ. Inst. Micol. Univ. Recife 326:116.
Bełżecki G. et al. 2016. Methods for the cultivation of ciliated protozoa from the large intestine of horses. FEMS Microbiol. Lett.363:fnv233. doi:10.1093/femsle/fnv233
Blackmore T. M. et al. 2013. Strong stability and host specific bacterial community in faeces of ponies. PLoS ONE 8:e75079. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075079
Bonhomme A. 1986. Attachment of horse cecal bacteria to forage cell walls. J. Vet. Sci.48:313–322.
Bonhomme-Florentin A. 1969. Essais de culture in vitro des Cycloposthiidae, ciliés commensaux de l’intestin du cheval. Rôle de ces ciliés dans la dégradation de la cellulose. (In French.) Protistologica (Paris) 5:519–522.
Bonhomme-Florentin A. 1985. Attachement des Ciliés du caecum de cheval aux fragments végétaux – Dégradation des chloroplastes – Attachement des bactéries aux Ciliés du caecum. (In French.) Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 25:127–139. doi: 10.1051/rnd:19850112
Cann A. J. et al. 2005. Analysis of the virus population present in equine faeces indicates the presence of hundreds of uncharacterized virus genomes. Virus Genes 30:151–156. doi: 10.1007/s11262-004-5624-3
Choukevitch J. 1911. Etude de la flore bacterienne du gros intestin du cheval. (In French.) Ann. Inst. Pasteur (Paris) 25:247–276.
Costa M. C. et al. 2012. Comparison of the fecal microbiota of healthy horses and horses with colitis by high throughput sequencing of the V3-V5 region of the 16S rRNA gene. PLoS ONE 7:e41484. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041484
Costa M. C. et al. 2015a. Characterization and comparison of the bacterial microbiota in different gastrointestinal tract compartments in horses. Vet. J.205:74–80. doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2015.03.018
Costa M. C. et al. 2015b. Changes in the equine fecal microbiota associated with the use of systemic antimicrobial drugs. BMC Vet. Res. 11:19. doi: 10.1186/s12917-015-0335-7
Da Veiga L. et al. 2005. Comparative study of colon and faeces microbial communities and activities in horses fed a high starch diet. Equine medicine 21:45–46.
Daly K. et al. 2012. Alterations in microbiota and fermentation products in equine large intestine in response to dietary variation and intestinal disease. Br. J. Nutr.107:989–995. doi: 10.1017/S0007114511003825
Daly K. et al. 2001. Bacterial diversity within the equine large intestine as revealed by molecular analysis of cloned 16S rRNA genes. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 38:141–151. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2001.tb00892.x
Davies E. 1964. Cellulolytic bacteria isolated from the large intestine of the horse. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 27:373–378. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1964.tb05044.x
De Fombelle A. et al. 2003. Characterisation of the microbial and biochemical profile of the different segments of the digestive tract in horses fed two distinct diets. Anim. Sci.77:293–304.
Dougal K. et al. 2014. Characterisation of the faecal bacterial community in adult and elderly horses fed a high fibre, high oil or high starch diet using 454 pyrosequencing. PLoS ONE 9:
e87424. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0087424
Dougal K. et al. 2013. Identification of a core bacterial community within the large intestine of the horse. PLoS ONE8:e77660. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0077660
Dougal K. et al. 2012. A comparison of the microbiome and the metabolome of different regions of the equine hindgut. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol.82:642–652. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2012.01441.x
Dougal K. 2005. The effect of exercise on microbial activity in the hindgut of horses. In: Proc. Br. Soc. Anim. Sci. Annu. Conf., York, UK. p. 47.
Dyar H. O. et al. 1894. Notes on normal intestinal bacilli of the horse and of certain other domesticated animals. Technol. Q. VI:256. Zbi. Baht.16: 838.
Faubladier C. et al. 2013. Effect of transportation on fecal bacterial communities and fermentative activities in horses: Impact of Saccharomyces cerevisiae CNCM I-1077 supplementation. J. Anim. Sci.91:1736–1744. doi: 10.2527/jas.2012-5720
Fernandes K. A. et al. 2014. Faecal microbiota of forage-fed horses in New Zealand and the population dynamics of microbial communities following dietary change.
PLoS ONE 9:e112846. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0112846
Gaillard-Martinie B.et al. 1995. Piromyces citronii sp. nov., a strictly anaerobic fungus from the equine caecum: A morphological, metabolic and ultrastructural study. FEMS Microbiol. Lett.130:321–326. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1995.tb07738.x
Garner H. E. et al. 1978. Changes in the caecal flora associated with the onset of laminitis. Equine Vet. J.10:249–252. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1978.tb02273.x
Glinsky M. J. et al. 1976. Measurement of volatile fatty acid production rate in the cecum of the pony. J. Anim. Sci.42:14651470.
Goachet A. G. et al. 2010. Long-term effects of endurance training on total tract apparent digestibility, total mean retention time and faecal microbial ecosystem in competing Arabian horses. Equine Vet. J.42:387–392. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00188.x
Gold J. J. et al. 1988. Ultrastructural description of a new chytrid genus of caecum anaerobe Caecomyces equi gen. nov., sp. nov., assigned to the Neocallimasticaecceae. Biosystems21:403–415. doi: 10.1016/0303-2647(88)90039-1
Golomidova A. et al. 2007. The diversity of coliphages and coliforms in horse feces reveals a complex pattern of ecological interactions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.73:5975–5981. doi: 10.1128/AEM.01145-07
Goodson J. et al. 1988. Effects of an abrupt diet change from hay to concentrate on microbial numbers and physical environment in the cecum of the pony. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.54:1946–1950.
Grønvold A.-M. R. et al. 2010. Fecal microbiota of horses in the clinical setting: Potential effects of penicillin and general anesthesia. Vet. Microbiol.145:366–372. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.03.023
Gruby D. et al. 1843. Recherches sur des animalcules se développant en grand nombre dans l’estomac et dans les intestins, pendant la digestion des animaux herbivores et carnivores. (In French.) CR Acad. Sci.,Paris 17:1304–1308.
Hansen N. C. et al. 2015. High nutrient availability reduces the diversity and stability of the equine caecal microbiota. Microb. Ecol. Health Dis.26:27216.
Harhangi H. R. et al. 2003. Cel6A, a major exoglucanase from the cellulosome of the anaerobic fungi Piromyces sp. E2 and Piromyces equi. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, Gene Struct. Expression1628:30–39. doi: 10.1016/S0167-4781(03)00112-X
Harlow B. E. et al. 2013. Diarrhea-associated pathogens, lactobacilli and cellulolytic bacteria in equine feces: Responses to antibiotic challenge. Vet. Microbiol.166:225–232. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.05.003
Hastie P. M. et al. 2008. Semi-quantitative analysis of Ruminococcus flavefaciens, Fibrobacter succinogenes and Streptococcus bovis in the equine large intestine using real-time polymerase chain reaction. Br. J. Nutr.100:561–568. doi: 10.1017/S0007114508968227
Heath I. B. et al. 1983. Assignment of the rumen anaerobe Neocallimastix frontalis to the Spizellomycetales (Chytridiomycetes) on the basis of its polyflagellate zoospore ultrastructure. Can. J. Bot.61:295–307. doi: 10.1139/b83-033
Hsiung T. S. 1930. A monograph of the protozoa of the large intestine of the horse. Iowa State Coll. J. Sci.4:356–423.
Hungate R. E.1950. The anaerobic mesophilic cellulolytic bacteria. Bacteriol. Rev.14:1–46.
Hungate R. E.1966. The rumen and its microbes. Academic Press, New York, NY.
Jensen B. B. 1996. Methanogenesis in monogastric animals. Environ. Monit. Assess.42:99–112. doi: 10.1007/BF00394044
Joblin et al. 1989. Fermentation of barley straw by anaerobic rumen bacteria and fungi in axenic culture and in co-culture with methanogens. Lett. Appl. Microbiol.9:195–197. doi: 10.1111/j.1472-765X.1989.tb00323.x
Jouany J.-P. et al. 2009. Effect of live yeast culture supplementation on hindgut microbial communities and their polysaccharidase and glycoside hydrolase activities in horses fed a high-fiber or high-starch diet. J. Anim. Sci.87:2844–2852. doi: 10.2527/jas.2008-1602
Julliand V.1996. Etude de l’écosystème cæcal des équidés: Aptitude à dégrader les polyolosides pariétaux, Caractérisation quantitative et qualitative des flores cellulolytiques bactériennes et fongiques dominantes. (In French.) Thèse de doctorat 3ème cycle, Université de Bourgogne, Dijon, France ].
Julliand V. et al. 2001. Feeding and microbial disorders in horses: 3 – Effects of three hay:grain ratios on microbial profile and activities. J. Equine Vet. Sci.21:543–546. doi: 10.1016/S0737-0806(01)70159-1
Julliand V. et al. 1999. Identification of Ruminococcus flavefaciens as the predominant cellulolytic bacterial species of the equine cecum. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.65:3738–3741.
Julliand V. et al. 2005. Fecal microflora as a marker of cecal or colonic microflora in horses?In: 19th Equine Sci. Soc. Symp., Tucson, AZ. p. 140–141.
Julliand V. et al. 1998. Comparison of metabolic activities between Pyromyces citronii, an equine fungal species, and Pyromyces communis, a ruminal species. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol.70:161–168. doi: 10.1016/S0377-8401(97)00043-6
Kern D. L. et al. 1974. Ponies vs. steers: Microbial and chemical characteristics of intestinal ingesta. J. Anim. Sci.38:559–564.
Kern D. L. et al. 1973. Pony cecum vs. steer rumen: The effect of oats and hay on the microbial ecosystem. J. Anim. Sci.37:463–469.
Kulikov E. et al. 2007. Diversity and dynamics of bacteriophages in horse feces. Microbiology76:236–242. doi: 10.1134/S0026261707020166
Liebetanz E. 1910. The parasitic protozoa of the ruminant stomach. (In German.)Arch. Protistenkd.32:111–170.
Liggenstoffer A. S. et al. 2010. Phylogenetic diversity and community structure of anaerobic gut fungi (phylum Neocallimastigomycota) in ruminant and non-ruminant herbivores. ISME J.4:1225–1235. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2010.49
Lin C. et al. 1995. Taxon-specific probes for the cellulolytic genus Fibrobacter reveal abundant and novel equine-associated population. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.61:1348–1351.
Lwin K.-O. et al. 2014. Comparative analysis of the methanogen diversity in horse and pony by using mcrA gene and archaeal 16S rRNA gene clone libraries. Archaea2014:483574.
Mackie R. I. et al. 1988. Enumeration of anaerobic bacterial microflora of the equine gastrointestinal tract. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.54:2155–2160.
Maczulak A. E. et al. 1985. Nitrogen utilisation in bacterial isolates from the equine cæcum. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.50:1439–1443.
McCreery S. et al. 1971. Microflora in the equine cecum. J. Anim. Sci.33(Suppl. 1):234(Abstr.).
Medina M. et al. 2002. Effect of a preparation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae on microbial profiles and fermentation patterns in the large intestine of horses fed a high fiber or a high starch diet. J. Anim. Sci.80:2600–2609.
Milinovich G. J. et al. 2006. Changes in equine hindgut bacterial populations during oligofructose-induced laminitis. Environ. Microbiol.8:885–898.
Miyaji M. et al. 2008. Fiber digestion in various segments of the hindgut of horses fed grass hay or silage. Anim. Sci. J.79:339–346. doi: 10.1111/j.1740-0929.2008.00535.x
Moore B. E. et al. 1993. Effects of diet and hindgut defaunation on diet digestibility and microbial concentrations in the cecum and colon of the horse. J. Anim. Sci.71:3350–3358.
Moreau M. M. et al. 2014. Illumina sequencing of the V4 hypervariable region 16S rRNA gene reveals extensive changes in bacterial communities in the cecum following carbohydrate oral infusion and development of early-stage acute laminitis in the horse. Vet. Microbiol.168:436–441. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.11.017
Morvan B. et al. 1996. In vitro interactions between rumen H2-producing cellulolytic microorganisms and H2-utilizing acetogenic and sulfate-reducing bacteria. Anaerobe2:175–180. doi: 10.1006/anae.1996.0023
Muhonen S. et al. 2010. Effect of three different forage-based diets on microbial flora, pH and viscosity of the equine hindgut. In: EllisA. D.LonglandA. C.CoenenM.MiragliaN.editors, The impact of nutrition on the health and welfare of horses.Wageningen Academic Publishers,
Wageningen, the Netherlands. p. 196–198.
Müller C. et al. 2008. Effect of forage conservation method on microbial flora and fermentation pattern in forage and in equine colon and faeces. Livest. Sci.119:116–128. doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2008.03.007
Munn E. A. 1994. The ultrastructure of anaerobic fungi. In: OrpinC. G.Mountfort D. O. editors, Anaerobic fungi: Biology, ecology, and function.Marcel Dekker, New York, NY. p. 47–105.
O’Donnell M. et al. 2013. The core faecal bacterial microbiome of Irish Thoroughbred racehorses. Lett. Appl. Microbiol.57:492–501. doi: 10.1111/lam.12137
Orpin C. G. 1981. Isolation of cellulolytic phycomycete fungi from the cæcum of the horse. Microbiology123:287–296. doi: 10.1099/00221287-123-2-287
Ozeki K. et al. 1973. On the distribution of the ciliated protozoa in the large intestine of horse. Tohoku J. Agric. Res.24:86–101.
Proudman C. et al. 2015. Characterisation of the faecal metabolome and microbiome of Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Vet. J.47:580–586. doi: 10.1111/evj.12324
Sadet-Bourgeteau S. et al. 2012. La diversité de l’écosystème microbien du tractus digestif équin. (In French.) INRA Prod. Anim.25:407–418.
Sadet-Bourgeteau S. et al. 2014. Comparison of the bacterial community structure within the equine hindgut and faeces using automated ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis (ARISA). Animal8:1928–1934. doi: 10.1017/S1751731114001943
Schoster A. et al. 2013. Comparison of microbial populations in the small intestine, large intestine and feces of healthy horses using terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism. BMC Res. Notes6:91. doi: 10.1186/1756-0500-6-91
Schoster A. et al. 2015. Effects of transport, fasting and anaesthesia on the faecal microbiota of healthy adult horses. Equine Vet. J.(in print). doi: 10.1111/evj.12479
Steelman S. M. et al. 2012. Pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA genes in fecal samples reveals high diversity of hindgut microflora in horses and potential links to chronic laminitis. BMC Vet. Res.8:231. doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-8-231
Varloud M. et al. 2004. Partial and total apparent digestibility of dietary carbohydrates in horses as affected by the diet. Anim. Sci.79:61–72.
Vavra J. et al. 1966. Etude sur la morphologie: Le cycle évolutif et la position systématique e callimstix cyclopis weissenberg 1912. (protozoa occurring in the parasitic protozoa of the ruminant stomach. ) Protistologica2:5–13.
Willing B. et al. 2009. Changes in faecal bacteria associated with concentrate and forage-only diets fed to horses in training. Equine Vet. J.41:908–914. doi: 10.2746/042516409X447806
Ze X. et al. 2013. Some are more equal than others: The role of “keystone” species in the degradation of recalcitrant substrates. Gut Microbes4:236–240. doi: 10.4161/gmic.23998
🇬🇧 We are an experienced team of therapists specializing in feed consultation and integrated therapies for horses. With extensive experience in treating metabolic issues, we focus on natural, species-appropriate feeding and proven naturopathic remedies to enhance your horse's health. Benefit from our expertise to ensure the well-being of your horse.
- What is Adiponectin And How Can We Use It? - 21. October 2024
- West Nile virus infections in horses - 10. September 2024
- Does garlic help against insects in horses? - 29. June 2024
